Henry the Great

 

A timeline by David Holmes.

Edited by David Harper

 

 

 

 

For want of a nail the shoe was lost,

For want of a shoe the horse was lost,

For want of a horse the knight was lost,

For want of a knight the battle was lost,

For want of a battle the kingdom was lost.

So, a kingdom was lost - all for want of a nail.

Sometimes a minor thing can have great consequences.

The death of Henry, the eldest son of James I of England allowed his brother Charles to take the throne and civil war ensued.

Not a story as such but a timeline of what might have been had Henry survived...

Chapter 1)

Original Time Line (OTL)

 

Long recognised as one of the greatest monarchs the United Kingdoms of England and Scotland has produced, Henry IX was a man seemingly destined from birth to be one of the great movers and shakers of history.

Born in Scotland (19th February 1594) at Stirling castle, the son of James VI of Scotland and Anne of Denmark. He was christened at midsummer and it is said that the central event in Shakespeare's A Midsummer Night's Dream, written shortly after, was based on the royal baptismal party.

His father had high expectations of his eldest and in 1598 wrote the ‘Basilikon Doron’ (Royal Gift) giving guidelines as to how a successful monarch should rule his subjects.

(1594) Henry Stuart was born. He was immediately given the titles Duke of Rothesay, Earl of Carrick and Lord of the Isles, confirming him in the highest of Scottish titles.

(1603) Elizabeth I died and James VI becomes James I of England. He confirmed Henry as Duke of Cornwall.

(1605) The Gunpowder plot.

(1610) Henry was confirmed as Prince of Wales and Earl of Chester. Bringing together the titles which every male monarch who has subsequently occupied the throne of Britain has held. During this time Henry also befriended Sir Walter Raleigh as well as establishing a correspondence with Henry VI of France and Gustav Adolphus of Sweden. Though when his father suggested a French marriage, he answered that he was 'resolved that two religions should not lie in his bed'.

(1611) King James Bible published.

(1612) (This is the Point of Departure from the Original Time Line (OTL)). In November Henry decided to take an unseasonable swim in the Thames, subsequently contracted typhoid and was only saved by the intervention of his friend Sir Walter Raleigh who, despite being in the Tower of London, procured some quinine to break the fever. (In OTL Henry died and Charles became the successor.)

(1612 – 1625) During this time Henry added to his increasing popularity by living a fairly austere protestant lifestyle (as opposed to the decadence of the Jacobean court). He championed such causes as naval reform and reconstruction, and, with an eye to the future, colonisation especially of Virginia, as well as encouraging various ‘troublemaking’ protestant sects to set up their own colonies in the New World. He also interceded with his father to stay the execution of his friend and mentor Sir Walter Raleigh. It was during this time that Henry was betrothed in marriage to Maria Elisabet of Sweden, daughter of Charles IX and his second wife, Christina of Holstein-Gottorp. The marriage was ostensibly a happy one, though rumours abounded of internal strife between the young couple, though this was mostly due to the couple both being very intelligent and having fixed views on what was needed for the Kingdom. Though an initial friendship with Henry IV of France's son, Louis XIII, had been established, this relationship became strained over the years as the influence of Louis' mother and her protégé Cardinal Richeleiu dominated Louis' life. Henry also became famous for chivalry and his patronage of artists, architects, and men-of-letters seemed to promise that the reign would be a potential golden age for Britain. His friendship with various members of Parliament (despite James having dissolved it) and his preparedness to listen to reason, even if it went against his views, frequently brought him into strife with his father when he voiced them. It is thought that it was at this time that Henry's later reforms of Parliament and taxation were formulated by his discussions and friendship with William Cavendish, John Byron and the lawyer, John Bradshaw. His knowledge of Robert Cecil's ‘Great Contract’ undoubtedly played a part as well.

(1618) Henry and Maria's first child, a son, James Alexander was born.

(1619) Charles was married to Elisabeth von Nassau-Siegen.

(1621) Henry and Maria's second child, a son, Robert William was born.

(1624) Charles' wife died in childbirth as did the child, a daughter.

(1625) This year saw the death of James I of England, a man who started off in great popularity with the English but whose actions over the years, including his most cherished ambition – the union of England and Scotland – were thwarted by Parliament, who objected to James's wish to rename the joint realm 'Britain'. To Parliament, a new name meant a new kingdom in which James would be free to set himself up as an absolute emperor. In contrast, Parliament would be a mere provincial assembly.

James's reaction was to try to enact the Union symbolically, using his own powers under the royal prerogative. By proclamation he assumed the title 'King of Great Britain'. He then announced a new union currency, Royal Coat of Arms and flag.

Not content with symbols, he also practiced a union by stealth by filling his bedchamber, the inner circle of his court, almost exclusively with Scots. James took a more than fatherly interest in Scots’ lads with well-turned legs and firm buttocks, but recruiting them also suited him politically.

James had inherited a substantial debt from Elizabeth. He also had a large family to maintain and wanted to spend money on his favourites and pleasures. The crown's 'ordinary income' from land and custom duties was hopelessly inadequate, and there was no choice but to ask Parliament for more money. But Parliament saw no reason why English tax payers' money should end up in the pockets of Scottish favourites.

Upon his accession, in 1625 Henry was crowned, despite Parliament's objections, as King of Britain. However, one of his first acts as King was to assemble Parliament to sort out the Royal finances and, despite his inclination towards the divine right of Kings, Henry accepted a modified version of the Great Contract, allowing his household an income of £250,000 per annum. In return Henry gave up his feudal privileges and despite the occasional bouts of acrimony a working relationship (of sorts) was established. Indeed, Parliament saw the need to strengthen the Kingdom both militarily and financially and, with the support of the King, looked for means to increase commerce and trade in order to pay for naval and military reconstruction.

At this time Henry also dismissed all of James I's favourites from the court including George Villiers, Duke of Buckingham, a man whom he distrusted greatly and whom he had prevented inveigling his dying father into declaring war on Spain. Removing several of his titles in the process, Henry had Villiers exiled to Scotland. Henry then appointed the capable John Pym to represent him in France in negotiations with Cardinal Richelieu over concerns with the Huguenot Protestants currently in revolt at La Rochelle in France. This Pym managed successfully, despite his disdain for Catholicism, allowing an earlier Huguenot exodus to England and Ireland with a corresponding transfer of dissidents in return. The resulting gain to the English and Irish economies further boosted Henry's attempts to revitalize Britain. Henry also appointed Thomas Wentworth, as his President of the Council of the North after dismissing Emmanuel Scrope, Earl of Sunderland, from his position for suspected Catholic sympathies. Henry, although like his father being tolerant of other faiths, was determined always to have ultimate control over the organizations that controlled them. Henry was also able to recruit Ernst Von Mansfeldt to advise him on military affairs. This after Maria had persuaded him not to get involved in funding a Danish attempt to seize the Palatinate, despite it being his sister's husband's original demesne and her pressurising him to permit it.

(1626) Henry appointed his brother Charles to represent the ‘King’ at the Scottish Parliament. This was meant to free Charles from his entanglements with extreme Protestant groups and isolate him from various influences within the royal court. All this led to was Charles coming under the influence of James' old cabal, including Buckingham, who resented their loss of influence (and wealth) within the ‘English’ court.

(1627) Henry and Maria's third child, a daughter, Christina Elizabeth, was born. The labour was difficult and the subsequent fever left Maria barren and prone to bouts of weakness, though she still remained her husband's enduring love. It was at this time that Henry, horrified at the actions of the doctors, actively started to seek out ‘men of knowledge, science and the arts’ It was his desire to see his kingdom as a shining beacon of light and progress.

(1628) By now Henry had consolidated his position as monarch in England and Wales, though was still struggling to sort out the nation’s finances to his satisfaction (and advantage). In order to increase his influence, Henry proposed to Parliament a review of the Magna Carta with a view to ‘expanding the influence of the realm in its dealings with all good men’. Henry's main thoughts at the time, according to his chronicler, were towards increasing the size of Parliament by including new boroughs as well as denuding Parliament of its rotten ones (and increasing his influence by patronage). He immediately faced opposition in the form of Robert Devereaux, 3rd Earl of Essex, a man who had been married to Frances Howard, Countess of Suffolk, in 1606, but was divorced by James I so that she could marry one of his favourites. Devereaux, a man who hated the Stuarts with a passion, his first act was to gather up like-minded men in an attempt to limit the King's power and to tie him to Parliament's tail by causing Henry to dissolve Parliament as his father had and foment dissent within the country. By constant thwarting of debate by means of gerrymandering and prevarication all Devereaux managed to do was isolate himself and his followers from the moderates within Parliament who wanted reform. Henry himself spent little time debating. Being a man of action, he was currently using his new wealth to support and finance endeavours abroad, as well as having the keels laid of a new generation of warships. He preferred to leave debate in the hands of his confidants, William Cavendish, John Byron and John Bradshaw. At length though, Parliament produced a set of proposals to which the King felt himself able to give assent.

The main proposals were:

• No taxes to be levied without consent of Parliament;

• No subject to be imprisoned without cause (this reaffirmed the right of habeas corpus);

• Enfranchisement of all men having a value in property of over £1,000;

• Constituency reform in that all voting boroughs shall have an equal number of voters;

• Parliament to be increased to represent the new franchises.

At this time Parliament agreed to properly finance the King in order to expand the Navy. In return the King would give up his right to the Sea Tax, Knight's tax and various other means monarchs had used to obtain additional income without recourse to Parliament.

Parliament also allowed Henry the tonnage and poundage (customs) income to be allocated towards the Navy.

(1629) With a guaranteed income from the state to meet the needs of his now modest court and economic growth within the country, Henry's mind was turned to what he saw as the greatest threat to the internal peace of the realm, religion. Though a devout protestant believer himself, Henry had become alarmed over the years at the treatment of other fine men who had other beliefs, indeed he was aware of the possibilities of this treatment driving them into the arms of those extremists who wanted a Catholic takeover.

Yet the Protestants of England had very good reason to fear foreign Catholic powers and their influence.

In the 1550's Bloody Queen Mary had burned nearly 300 Protestants at the stake simply for opposing her rule.

The Spanish Inquisition was still a force to be reckoned with abroad, particularly Spain, one of the two premier powers on the continent.

(1560) The Spanish Duke of Alva massacred Protestant civilians in the Netherlands, suppressing a revolt.

(1573) The St Bartholemew Massacre in Paris, where Catholics had murdered 5,000 to 30,000 (estimated) Protestants in cold blood, took place, crippling the Huguenot cause.

(1558) The Spanish Armada and several Catholic plots against Elizabeth were dealt with.

There was still the Catholic Church's threat to recover all the land stolen from them by Henry VIII.

Indeed, his own father had been the subject of the Gunpowder plot. So, the fears were very real.

Henry called a conclave of religious leaders to discuss the issues involved, hoping for a solution as he himself resolved to make Britain so tough a nut to crack that foreign adventurism would be looked at as an act of desperation by the Catholic super-states of France or Spain.

(1630) The Conclave held in York was currently stalemated, often resulting in brawls between various factions and churchmen. That no-one had died was more due to the result of Henry's royal guards searching the attendees for edged weapons than any act of God. Many of the Puritan representatives had also threatened to boycott the Conclave when they were made aware of the need to include some Roman Catholic laymen. Only a personal appeal by the King and Queen brought them unwillingly to the debate.

The first of the new naval craft built by Henry took to sea. Looked upon as the most heavily armed ship of its type in the world, its duties were to patrol the English Channel to deal with various pirates and slavers operating in the area. Others were near completion and would be used to extend British influence both around the islands and in the New World.

(1631) The ‘Great Conclave’ finally yielded results, though they were not to anyone's great satisfaction they produced a compromise most could live with. The most controversial was the call for a ‘Freedom of Religion’ whereby no man could be forced to worship in a manner he found not to his taste. This would essentially mean that Roman Catholicism would be tolerated again (though not loved by those in authority). The Puritan influence within Anglicanism was salved by moves to unite with Lutheranism (the puritans, being essentially patriarchal, nevertheless had a great admiration for Henry's Queen and her ‘simple piety’). There was recognition too for such groups such as the Quakers and other dissident religious organisations. The downside from Henry's point of view was that the Conclave concluded that he could no longer be the secular head of God's Church in England. This meant in essence that he was being asked to hand over to the church various religious properties he still held in trust as its head. The downside from Parliament's view was the conclave asking them to remove the laws requiring mandatory attendance at an Anglican church. Not that removing a law was difficult, but because of the rancorous debate that followed on the ‘probable decline in moral standards’. The one thing all agreed upon was the Conclave's statement that ‘All men must come to God, though it is to the weakness of man that God has provided many paths in His church. Yet all good men must be subject to the laws of this land and its King, seeking not to undermine that which is good and proper.’ And so, it was decided. Church and State must separate and remain separated. As later historians put it, ‘It was not easy and it was not immediate and were it not for Henry's decision to allow free transport to the New World for those who could not live in peace together then the circumstances which followed would likely have been so much worse’.

Britain's fleet at this time had now increased to 60 ships of the line, ten of which were the new type based on the ‘Sovereign of the Seas’ with a further fifteen under construction.

At this time Henry and Parliament also made major investments in the New World, expanding the colonies and building two new shipyards and ship repair facilities. At this time also the colonists came into conflict with those of New France and New Holland. A low-key war of raid and counter-raid commenced, with both sides picking off each other's outposts and shipping. The British colonists however had the advantage of numbers and infrastructure as their King and Parliament had been encouraging growth and industry in their lands since before he became King.

(1632) France however had other plans for dealing with Britain and its upstart people. Henry's spies in the French court had got wind of plans to invade Ireland. This however, was a ruse to take Henry and Parliament’s eye off what was about to happen in Scotland. It meant that the British Navy was out in strength around the Irish coast when the real plan was sprung.

Charles, Henry’s brother, under the influence of various Scottish and English nobles who were rightly fearful of losing their influence and power, was crowned King of Scotland in Stirling. Bankrolled by France and promised French troops in support, many (though not a majority) in Scotland rallied to his side seeking independence. To add to Henry's woes, the Devereaux uprising began with Essex and Kentish militias seeking to free their counties of pernicious foreign influences (Huguenots) forced on them by the King.

The British Civil war had begun.

 

Chapter 2)

 

(1632) Robert Devereux, 3rd Earl of Essex, and now rebel against the crown, was a seasoned military commander and Parliamentarian, having served three times abroad in the Bohemian rebellion and war of the Palatinate (OTL 30-years war). His distaste for the House of Stuart, stemming from losing his wife, Frances Howard, Countess of Suffolk, in 1606, in a forced divorce by James I so that she could marry James' favourite. This had hardened into hatred over what he saw as the betrayal of the Palatinate by the refusal of Henry to support any foreign adventures during the time of national rebuilding. Gathering together various disgruntled and ambitious nobles, many of whom were facing financial ruin due to the inflation of James I’s reign by having fixed rents on their land tenants along with poor investments abroad. Taking advantage of a poorly organised local rebellion in Essex and Kent against the Huguenots, Devereaux gathered an army with the intent of marching on London and restoring England's rightful place in the world. Many historians have argued over the years just what Devereaux's intentions actually were. Was he a republican or just a usurper? No one, not even Devereaux, seemed to know for sure. Many of the nobles and their personal retinues fighting for Devereaux seemed to have their own agenda, though all seemed to agree this ‘Merchant’ King must go. The Rebellion in Scotland seemed perfect for them to get what they wanted and divide up the spoils afterwards. Unfortunately for them, Charles' seeming indecision in Scotland after taking the Scottish crown (he was in fact waiting for French reinforcements and coinage), left them the first to face Henry.

Henry however had his own problems, the calling out of the various militias to face Charles and Devereaux was not going well. Though having many loyal supporters, there were also many who had decided to sit on the fence, deciding that a problem in Scotland was not their problem. So, it took several months for Henry to assemble a force of 10,000 men to face Devereaux and his 8,000 in Essex.

Henry's chronicler noted the King's reaction to the march to face Devereaux. ‘His majesty is not amused by the damage to his kingdom that the militias perform. Theft, arson, rape, and murder seem to follow in the wake of the armies billeting on the roads to find the rebels. The noble commanders seem to have no control over their men. Indeed, many seem not to know where their men are.’

Devereaux led the King a merry dance with his army never fully engaging, until finally, some weeks after the King's army set off, a tired, cold, hungry and increasingly rebellious Royal army faced up to Devereaux's rested and ready army.

The battle of Braintree (September 1632) was a victory for the Royal forces however as recorded by Henry's chronicler. It was at best a draw, with fortuitous circumstances at the end. Both sides faced each other on each side of a small valley with mixed musketeer and pikemen regiments to the fore, cavalry on the wings and heavier cannon to the rear. At 11am the Royal army advanced to engage the centre of the rebels only to find their advance studded by caltrops causing their squares to break formation. Devereaux having far more heavy cavalry swung around them to outflank the foot soldiers, only to face Henry's artillery and cavalry reserve. A general melee then ensued, during which Henry attempted to extricate his mixed musket and pikemen. It was at this stage that Devereaux's cavalry broke through to engage the Royal party itself. Henry was only saved by a small troop of volunteer cavalry from the township of Huntingdon, led by a landowner named Oliver Cromwell, throwing themselves into the fray and allowing Henry's men to seek safety within the regiments of foot. Seeing the disarray his army was facing Henry determined to go down fighting. Removing his lower armour (quite a feat in itself), he moved his Royal guard to the front of the regiment, had his royal banner unfurled and sounded the advance. To the astonishment of Devereaux and the rebel commanders the entire front line of Henry's army followed their King into the face of a torrent of artillery and musket, not marching but advancing at a run, pikes levelled. Seeing the royal banner and the maddened Royals bearing down upon them, the rebels, despite seemingly looking like winning the day, broke and fled. Devereaux himself was carried off the field by his personal guard cursing and struggling and eventually ended up joining the army of Charles in Scotland having set sail from his base in Ipswich. Yet many of the rebel officers were cut down by their own men as they made vain and desperate attempts to rally them. Others though abandoned their men and fled north to join Charles, some making it, but many were caught and hanged by the many loyalist sheriffs as they tried to avoid Henry's and his men's wrath.

The aftermath was quite as bad as Henry thought. He'd lost over 3,000 men with more sure to die from their wounds. Henry it was recorded had lost the tip of an ear though had no recollection as to how. The rebels, however, had dissolved, losing somewhere in the region of 2,500 men. The majority, having scattered back to wherever they came from, weren't to be a threat again. Though the area suffered from brigandage for a number of years after.

Henry's further thoughts on the matter are well known. His next move was to request Parliament to finance a standing army, with a properly organised commissary to stand in defence of the realm. He also offered a Royal Commission to one John McGregor to sort out the King's Highways to a standard fit to march an army over. McGregor had approached the King years before with such a proposal using a cut-stone base with crushed gravel for road surfacing graded to a constant size of chippings (similar to Roman roads). This the King had put on the back burner for years, simply not having the means to finance it. This Parliament agreed to finance using the seized holdings of the ‘Traitors’ along with captured prisoners to actually do the work. Although Henry was never able to march to war over such a road, within ten years the travel times in Britain had been cut by two thirds.

Henry also commissioned a survey of Britain's coastal defences with the long-term view of keeping the Islands secure. Other measures taken were the building of ‘manned light-towers’ to guide shipping into the harbours of the realm safe from rocks and shoals. A request was made to Jeremiah Horrocks to see if spyglasses could be improved. William Harvey was also asked to see to the setting up of an army corps of surgeons. Many great scientists were also moving to Britain's universities, attracted by Henry's support of the sciences, including Johann Baptista van Helmont, William Oughtred, Hans Janssen; and his son, Zacharias, who brought with them their first crude microscope.

Further honours went to Oliver Cromwell, knighted on the field of battle and given the title of Earl of Essex for saving the King's life. He and the King became fast friends. Henry liked the man's practical turn of mind. He allowed him, Sir Thomas Fairfax and Ernst Von Mansfeldt to build and standardise the ‘New British Army’. It was Cromwell who solved the age-old problem of pikemen, sawing off the last two feet of their pike to make carrying it easier by introducing a socketed pike that could be split in half for transport. It was Mansfeldt who oversaw the introduction of a socket bayonet to fix onto the New Army's flintlocks, giving them a form of defence as well as the ability to reload and fire. Both musketeers and pikemen were given a steel helmet as well as a steel front-plate. No back-plate was supplied, the reasoning being that this army would never retreat.

The army consisted of a total of 22,500 men, broken down in the following way:

• Cavalry 11 regiments of 600 men, 6,600 in total when fully up to strength.
• Infantry 12 regiments of 1,200 men, 14,400 in total when fully up to strength.
• Dragoons 1 regiment of 1,000 men.
• Artillery 5 regiments of 100 men including 12 guns. 500 men in total with 60 guns.

The Infantry were issued with royal blue uniforms to replace their existing regiment's colour. Cavalry were issued with light headpieces, armour front and back, and a buff coat of leather.

The pay was set at eight pence a day for infantry, and two shillings a day for cavalry. Those in the cavalry had to provide their own horse. Promotion was now done strictly on military prowess and ability, no longer on a family or monetary basis. Henry was commander-in-chief, Fairfax and Mansfeldt his generals, with Cromwell his Quartermaster General, a task he seemed born for.

Further developments this year were Henry removing Thomas Wentworth from his position as Lord-President of the Council of the North and sending him to Ireland as Lord-Lieutenant with the instruction to keep the Irish under control. Wentworth had evolved the policy known as ‘Thorough’ by which he managed the Northern nobles for the administration of the State before the period of the British Civil War. Wentworth systematically applied this policy in Ireland. He dominated the main power groups by clever manipulation of the Irish Parliament and by securing firm control of the as yet unreformed army in Ireland. Schemes were introduced to develop trade and industry of every kind: financial reforms to increase Ireland's revenue were enforced; the piracy that was rife around the Irish coast was suppressed. The interests of the Crown and the British Parliament were his priority, at the expense of all private interest and many indeed thought Wentworth's methods were ruthless and despotic. He alienated the predominantly Catholic ‘Old English’ aristocracy in Ireland by promoting the interests of the new wave of Protestant English and Scottish settlers. The policy of driving the native Irish population from their lands was continued and extended under Wentworth's administration and under instruction from Henry none were allowed to the New World but were permitted to ‘escape’ to France.

***

 

In the port of Calais 70 French merchantmen escorted by 25 ships of the line set sail for Dunbar carrying 3,000 hardened troops, a siege train and a war chest of £200,000. Caught out of position, elements of the British fleet could only play catch up as the French steadily made their way north towards Charles.

(1632) The weather and winds favoured the French fleet and in September they lay off the coast of Scotland and began disembarking men, arms and money. Within days the Rebel forces had made contact and moved to link up with their French allies. For all Charles figured prominently in the campaign to free Scotland, he was not a particularly happy man. The terms of French aid included a marriage to a French princess and separate command of the French forces to a French commander. Spending a few weeks to sort out various command differences the rebel army split, one (15,000) set out south for Edinburgh with Charles, the other smaller (12,000) set out for Glasgow under the command of the Head of Clan Raghnaill, one of the larger more belligerent Scottish highland clans linked to the McDonalds. The idea being to secure both cities and then link up through the Midlothian valleys of the Forth and Clyde. On reaching Edinburgh, Charles had his first major setback in that the gates were shut in his face and the wall manned with the city militia. The Scottish rump Parliament having decided that Charles was no ‘King o' theirs’. Discussions with his commanders ensued and a siege was initiated. The French siege train was brought up and defensive lines were dug to protect the army, whilst off the Forth the French men-of-war gathered to close off any seaborne aid. After two weeks of relentless shelling a breach in the Flodden Wall was made and enlarged. At dawn on October 2nd an assault was made on the city. Despite the valiant efforts of the defenders the maddened Highlanders seized the walls and poured into the city, killing, raping and looting. Whole swaths of the Old Town were burnt to the ground, including the Parliament building. It is estimated almost 9,000 people died in the siege and ensuing atrocities out of a population of around 25,000, driving a permanent wedge between relations of the Lowland and Highland Scots. Only the Castle on its promontory still held, though its commander was forced to surrender five days later when hope of relief was dashed by the retreat of the Earl of Newcastle's relieving army, who were outnumbered by the rebels almost two to one.

The McDonald led army had better luck when Glasgow opened its gates to prevent a siege and possible atrocity. Leaving a garrison behind, the head of the Clan marched east to join with Charles who was moving to lay siege to Berwick.

(1633-A) The siege of Berwick was lifted after winter set in and Charles' army retreated to the Midlothian valley to billet and winter in (relative) comfort. Over the border in England there was panic in many towns who feared the Scots were just over the horizon, as well as frantic repairing of town and city walls, even as far south as Stamford. Questions in Parliament were raised as to the competency of the Earl of Newcastle, though much of the debate was stifled by Francis Pym who declared that any member who wished to lead an army north against a much greater foe was more than welcome to the command. This was the cause of one of the few rifts with Parliament Henry had, as he was under the impression it was ‘his’ army though both sides eventually agreed to disagree.

Good news came with the news that Admiral Hamilton had finally driven off the French fleet from the coast of England. The survivors had fled north to safety at Edinburgh, the British fleet losing two ships to the French's seven. Hamilton docked at Newcastle to a hero's welcome as, for all he was a Scot, he was a loyal Scot as the mob hailed him. News also came from the Caribbean that the French colony sharing the Isle of St Kitts had surrendered to Britain's North American flotilla. Admiral Wood had installed a British governor and had sent the French governor and his staff packing on the remaining French merchantman. The flotilla had then set out to interdict any French shipping it could find and had surprised the French Man-of-War Couronne, capturing her and her two escorts as they lay becalmed just off the coast of OTL Maine.

(1633-B) This was also the year known as the great Spanish swindle, in which Spain lost one of her prize Caribbean possessions and ended up in a European war with France. Later historians were able to put together the pieces of the actual events, though the machinations of the parties involved were very obscure at the time.

During 1628 a British privateer (on detached duty from the North American flotilla) patrolling the Caribbean ran across a Danish man-of-war. This unusual event was noted by the Privateer’s Captain and further investigation soon uncovered a series of discreet Danish colonies in the Virgin Islands (ostensibly claimed by Spain, though of little consequence as Spain still claimed the entire Caribbean, a situation ignored by all but the Spanish). The Danes had been quietly shipping their colonists up to Iceland, using it as a staging post and then moving them south, thus avoiding notice in the English Channel. It was the Dutch Netherlands who made the initial approaches to Denmark and Britain. They were desperate to relieve the siege of their homelands and had approached France in the hopes of intervention and the French seeking to end Spanish dominance of Europe had agreed, for a price, 40 million ducats, an amount that would have bankrupted Holland. However, the Staatholders had come up with a means to overcome this, if only Denmark and Britain would agree. It was known the Spaniards used Puerto Rico as a staging post for transporting silver and gold from their overseas colonies en-route to Spain. The Dutch had previously attempted to seize the Island back in 1625 under General Boudewijn Hendrick and now thought to try again. The first moves were the transportation of a Danish regiment and siege train to Britain (it was assumed they were mercenaries to fight the Scots). Disembarking in Dover, they were marched overland to Bristol, ostensibly to be re-embarked on transports to liberate Glasgow. The Danes however were embarked on British colonial transports (expansion in the New World had given Britain a lot of expertise in transporting large numbers of people to the Americas) to join an Anglo-Dutch fleet off the coast of Puerto Rico. The plan was simple, to seize the Island including the fort of San Felipe del Morro by means of landing at Santurce, crossing the San Antonio bridge (from an area known today in OTL as the Condado) into the islet of San Juan. Whilst the Dutch fleet with British aid blockaded the harbour keeping the treasure fleet from sailing out. This was accomplished and the Dutch, with the help of Danish and British ‘mercenaries’, were able to seize the Jewel in Spain's Caribbean crown. The Spanish governor and troops were rounded up by Dutch regulars and were kept unaware of a British or Danish presence and sent back to Spain on the slowest galleon that could be found. The British then withdrew also, having no desire to be involved in a war with Spain. The Dutch then ‘sold’ Puerto Rico to the Danes for 40 million ducats, minus the booty in the treasure fleet captured at anchor. And withdrew themselves. Though they did keep their fleet in the area to prevent any Spanish vessels getting too close to notice the change of ownership. Three days after the Dutch deposited 40 million ducats with the Fuggers Bank in Augsburg; French troops moved in to seize the Palatinate, isolating the Northern Spanish army from Italy. Henry's chroniclers parsed it perfectly. The Dutch wanted to be free, the Danes had the money, we had the transport. We got New Amsterdam and New Haarlem, Denmark got Puerto Rico by legal sale and the Dutch got their chance at freedom. Indeed, when Spain finally got round to sending back an invasion fleet to retake Puerto Rico, they found a Danish flag and fleet waiting for them. The situation in Europe being bad enough for Spain at the moment, the Spanish commander, not wishing to bring Denmark into the European war, decided to withdraw to Spain.

(1633-C) Having wintered in and around Edinburgh, Charles' army forged south again in the spring of that year meeting little opposition. Deciding to bypass Berwick (a very tough nut to crack) the rebels moved south to take Newcastle, meeting and defeating the Earl of Newcastle's army just outside Morpeth. Outnumbered and outgunned, the Earl felt obliged to at least try and draw the sting from the rebel army. The worst failings of pre-war militia training came to the fore in the ensuing battle with the experienced French troops in the centre cutting to pieces the British squares who, though they tried, were simply outclassed by the discipline shown by the rebel army. The resulting rout from the field caused the most casualties as the British were overtaken by both rebel cavalry and lightly armed Highlander swordsmen. The rebel army took light casualties of only 354 men, whilst the Earl of Newcastle's army of 12,000 lost over 8,000 in the ensuing battle and rout, the rest dispersing to flee to their homes. The Earl of Newcastle was captured too and, having refused to swear fealty to Charles, was executed on the spot. Two days later the City of Newcastle was captured, its citizens fearful of another ‘Edinburgh’ had they not opened their gates and surrendered though numerous incidents happened, tying down Scottish forces that could have been deployed elsewhere. At this time Charles sent diplomats to negotiate with Henry, promising to withdraw should Henry recognise Scotland as a separate Kingdom again and Charles as its King. Henry's reply is unknown, the negotiators, apparently taking one look at his face, fled in fear of their lives.

The New British Army (NBA) at this stage had been drilling and practicing with new tactics and disciplines. Unlike most European armies at this time, Henry, from his correspondence with Gustav Adolphus, had decided to opt for having two musketeers to one pikeman (it was usually the other way round) and forming his men in line as opposed to in block, giving a much larger firing front. This, along with Mansfeldt's new-fangled bayonets, gave Henry hope that this inexperienced army could hold its own against Charles' veterans. Shortly after dismissing Charles' attempt at diplomacy, the New British Army headed north to its first engagement.

Charles, having heard of Henry's refusal to talk and the news that Henry's army was on the move, took counsel with his advisors. He left a larger than normal garrison to hold Newcastle and headed south to what he hoped might be his destiny as King of Britain as well as Scotland.

The two armies met at the small village of Shipton, just North of York. Henry had pushed his army hard to avoid the City of York falling to Charles. The rebel army numbered some 25,000 men with the New British Army standing at about 20,000.

The Battle of Shipton was the first engagement of the fledgling New British Army and wasn't an auspicious start. Deploying into their line before the ranks of the rebel army many were overcome with nerves at the sight of the disciplined blocks of men facing them and the seeming fragility of their own line. Battle commenced at 10a.m. and the rebels advanced on the NBA centre, taking casualties from the musketeers at about 300 yards, The Head of Clanraghnaill sent his cavalry to probe at the right wings of the NBA, gaining some success as the inexperienced NBA cavalry gave ground, being pushed away from the centre, opening a gap between the foot and the cavalry, which a massed charge by a Highlander regiment was able to exploit. With a breach in his battle line already opened, Henry ordered the foot regiment to wheel in place something that had only been practiced on the parade grounds with limited success and on the field of battle was a complete disaster. The regiment broke, however the delay allowed Henry time to bring his cavalry reserve down on the now isolated Highlanders, routing them from the field. Elsewhere there was success in the centre as the longer line of Henry's musketeers took a deadly toll on the French regulars. On the NBA left though an advance had been stalled by broken ground and a series of hedges and ditches and so the regiments were unable to support each other. Here the rebels were able to catch and attack Henry's foot regiments piecemeal, causing a great many casualties. Only the bringing forward of the Dragoon regiment prevented a rout by finally enabling the NBA left to withdraw. Faced with both wings of his army badly mauled Henry withdrew the army backwards one foot at a time, always keeping them facing the menacing Rebel advance. The bayonet wall kept the Rebel cavalry and Highlander irregulars at bay whilst the second rank were able to reload.

The armies finally parted company shortly before dusk of a very long day. It was declared a rebel victory, though at no stage an overwhelming one as Henry's army was able to retreat back under the walls of York with its covering cannon fire. NBA casualties stood at 5,000 dead with the rebels losing 4,500. However, most casualties were in the French regulars who, it is estimated, lost almost 1,100 men to the NBA line. The next day Charles and his commanders were more than eager to resume the battle; however, the commanding general of the French said ‘Non!’. His forces had been badly mauled and without their support this rebel army would lose. After much bitter argument and recrimination, the rebel army withdrew north, back to the rebellious city of Newcastle.

(1633-D) The rebel retreat came as some surprise to the loyalists, though their morale had not been shattered and the belief was strong that they had just been unlucky the day before and were relishing a chance to have another go. Still, it did give Fairfax and Von Mansfeldt a chance to bring up reserves and new recruits to replenish the ranks of the army. Though Henry's every instinct told him to pursue the rebels, wiser heads prevailed, the NBA (now being called by some the Bluecoats) needed to re-organise and Cromwell's supply train was still some two days behind them, so hard had Henry pushed his army forward.

(1633-E May) France invaded the Palatinate; no declaration of war against Spain was made, though many believed a massive Dutch bribe was responsible for this action. One result of this was further French reserves, who were attempting to embark for Scotland, were withdrawn to face the Spanish tercios invading northern France from the Spanish Netherlands.

The NBA finally set forth from York leaving a strong garrison behind and headed north. Though anxious to relieve Newcastle, the plan was to bypass the city by travelling north via Hexham and head to Scotland via Otterburn, Jedburgh and Dalkieth, outflanking and cutting off the retreat of the rebel army from their strongholds and isolating them in increasingly hostile territory.

The British Navy under Admiral Hamilton were able to finally annihilate the remaining French warships in a battle just off the Firth of Forth. Reinforced by five new sovereign class men of war from the naval docks at Chatham, the French were no match for the superior speed and much heavier gunned British fleet. Eleven French ships were sunk, four were captured as prizes leaving three very badly damaged vessels to slip free, only to have to put in to Bruge and be seized by the Spanish, no-one having told their captains about the war.

The rebels, however, had learned of the loyalist plans and abandoned Newcastle, fleeing north to secure their hold over the Midlothian valley. The rebel army also faced problems with hunger as the land they now crossed had been stripped bare by them on the march south, unlike the well supplied ‘Bluecoats’. Still, having a slight head start, meant that the rebels were able to reach Edinburgh and resupply as well as recruit more Highlanders and their Lairds to the cause. What Charles was unaware of, was that the wholesale looting and pillaging of the lowlands by his ‘followers’ had left bitter resentment and a burning desire for revenge on the harbingers of their woes, providing of course Henry could defeat the rebels. The two armies met again as Charles, his army now numbering 28,000, faced the NBA at Dalkieth.

(1633-F June) The two forces met facing each other over the valley of the South Esk river, though at this stage of the year it was no more than a small stream. Once again the rebel forces placed the French regulars in the centre, though heavily reinforced by the pikemen of the leader of Clanraghnaill. The Highlanders massed on the wings of this central core, with cavalry on the outside. The NBA, numbering 20,000, plus various irregulars bringing the total up to 26,000, once again drew up its ranks into a line rather than a square. This time however Henry placed two blocks of irregulars on the left and right flanks to cover against any gap opening in the line. Henry also brought up some small artillery pieces to fill the gaps in his line and a goodly array of canister shells to fill them with. This time Henry allowed the rebels to come to him, with his cavalry under the control of Fairfax blocking any attempts to outflank the loyalists.

On the left and right flanks, crossing the stream, the Highlanders advanced into a hail of fire expecting the thin lines to break as they charged, this time they were wrong and also faced Henry's small artillery who poured cannister in on their formations. On hitting the line all they managed was to bow it backwards whilst taking very heavy casualties from bayonets in the front rank and musket fire from the ranks behind. At this stage, seeing the Highlanders weren't going to break the NBA formation, the rebel commanders halted the advance of their centre and started an exchange of musket fire. This was what Henry had hoped for; his lines could pour far more fire onto the rebels than they could pour at him and it soon became apparent that casualties on the rebel side were mounting. Finally, the rebel centre retreated and Henry loosed his cavalry into the flanks of the Highlanders, causing them to break back towards their own lines. At this juncture Henry sounded a general advance and ordered his Dragoons if possible to circle around and give oblique fire onto the flanks of the rebel right. Constantly under fire and in danger of being outflanked and their retreat cut off, a large mass of rebels broke from the field back to the dubious safety of their camp near Edinburgh, taking Charles with them. Left on the field to surrender were the Clanraghnaill's pikemen and the French. Henry's Dragoons had also managed to seize the baggage train and, although partially looted, had made it secure.

Accepting the surrender and parole of the French commander and ordering him south under escort to Newcastle, Henry wondered what to do with Clanraghnaill's men.

Rebel casualties were thought to be in the region of 11,000, mostly from the retreat when loyalist cavalry caught up with them. The NBA lost 3,500 men, a great and satisfying victory.

(1633-G June) It was in this month that a number of British goldsmiths, dealing in foreign and domestic coins and by letting their safes be used for deposits of valuables, decided, along with a number of well-financed private citizens as well as Parliament, to set up a Bank of Britain. The main purpose of the Act founding the Bank was to raise money for the war by taxation and by the novel device of a permanent loan on which interest would be paid but the principal would not be repaid.

(1633-H June) Charles, and what remained of his army, fled northwest abandoning Edinburgh, moving towards Stirling. Although still numbering 15,000, his numbers were getting lower everyday as many Lairds and Highlanders deserted him and melted away into the countryside, fleeing for their castles, determined to keep their heads down and hope Henry would miss them. The lowlands of Scotland had risen behind him, killing any Highlander or sympathiser they could get their hands on. Only a small garrison in Edinburgh castle still held out, led by George Villiers, the ex-Duke of Buckingham. Seeing Henry's army marching into Edinburgh, he tried to negotiate for his life, but was seized by the captain of the guard and handed over to Henry in return for the lives of the garrison. Henry himself was shocked by the destruction and devastation of the Scottish capital and promptly ordered that one in ten of the captured Highland prisoners should be hanged as an example to all those who would raise arms against their legitimate King. He also enslaved Clanraghnaill after hanging its Laird and sent them south to join McGregor's ever voracious work-gangs as indentured labour to build the new King's Highways.

Henry then ordered Fairfax and Von Mansfeldt to continue the pursuit as he set forth back to London and affairs of state. He appointed Cromwell as Governor General of Edinburgh, charged with the rebuilding of the city and the formation of new regiments for the NBA. This Cromwell took to with relish, though making up new regiments was easy as he had five times more Lowlanders trying to sign up than he had positions for. His first priority was accepting veterans who had mercenary experience, including a young captain of horse called David Leslie, whose small band of ‘guerrilla’ fighters had been a constant pain for the rebels, reminding them that this was no longer ‘their’ land.

(1633-I July) Charles and his followers abandoned Stirling, fleeing ever further north hoping that Fairfax would give up the pursuit or that they could somehow find a way to safety.

In France Richelieu agreed an indemnity of £100,000 and got what remained of the French regiments back, Britain kept the siege train though.

Spanish troops in the siege of the Dutch Netherlands de-camped and marched south-east to retake the Palatinate, meeting the French in a colossal battle just outside Koblenz. Making the British civil war look like a playground scuffle, two armies of over 75,000 men each, fought each other to a standstill.

(1633-J August) Fairfax and the NBA fought a small skirmish with rogue Highlander bands just south of Perth. Winning, he then occupied Scone Castle and, under secret orders from Henry, had the Stone of Destiny loaded onto a cart bound for Edinburgh and then hence by sea to London. Von Mansfeldt had since departed with half the NBA to the west at Oban, fighting occasional skirmishes as well as capturing any Highland man or boy he could find and having them transported in slave coffles to Edinburgh to rebuild the city.

The Stone of Destiny was smuggled into London (no-one, not the captain nor crew of the ship nor the men guarding it had any idea it was there, they just thought it to be the heads of traitors to be displayed on the city gates of London). The Stone was then secreted away somewhere in the grounds of Hampton Court, guarded by men loyal to Henry alone.

Spanish troops managed to dislodge the French from the Palatinate and link up with reinforcements from the Spanish holdings in Italy.

Spain also discovered that the ‘Dutch’ had occupied Puerto Rico and started assembling a fleet to take it back. Spain then attempted to send an army over the Pyrenees towards Toulouse, but this was turned back at the passes by very strong French defences.

France sent an army south to invade northern Italy.

The Bank of Britain started issuing promissory notes, they became very popular as carrying gold or silver was time consuming and bulky.

The first McGregor road had now reached Rochester (Kent) and would go to Dover via Canterbury. A similar project was heading west to Bristol and then north to Gloucester and then to Cardiff. Plans were being laid to use Scots prisoners to build a Great North Road to Edinburgh via Peterborough, York and Newcastle.

Giovanni Branca, travelled to the newly founded Universities in England and showed off his woodcut drawings for a steam turbine. Although laughed at by many, some scholars took note and sought funding to build one.

Plans were also offered to Parliament to link the Kennet (a tributary of the Thames near Reading) to the river Avon by means of an inland waterway using mitre gate locks originally designed by Leonardo Da Vinci. This would enable New World cargoes to avoid the English Channel.

(1633-K September) Charles' army (now numbering only 4,000) dissolved as he was pushed out of Inverness by Fairfax's troops, leaving Charles with just a few loyal retainers as he attempted to flee around the loyalists by heading east to Elgin.

Many Scottish highland towns were now virtually depopulated as major reprisals against ‘traitors’ to the crown began. The men were used to rebuild towns, coastal defences or join the road crews, the women were indentured into domestic service. Many protested this treatment, claiming they had no part in the troubles, but no-one wanted to hear their pleas at this time. Henry offered the towns to his Huguenot subjects and also various other protestant groups fleeing the Franco-Spanish war. Many accepted, life was harsh in the north but they were hard-working and industrious and very loyal to this British King. There was some debate in the English Parliament as to Henry's right to do this, however, as this was Scotland and the land was forfeit to the crown, there was little Parliament could do.

Henry's eldest son, James, now accompanied Henry in all his dealings with Parliament and other influential men of Britain. Not as outgoing as Henry, he nevertheless was developing into a promising young man of many talents.

Henry was also approached by Rabbi Menasseh ben Israel, a Jew from Portugal, and was persuaded after discussions with merchants, clergymen and lawyers to allow those of the Jewish faith to settle in Britain after a gap of 343 years.

Henry convened what became known as the Hampton Conference to discuss the integration of Scotland, England and Wales into a single governance entity. Scotland itself was still under direct rule by Cromwell, acting as governor of Edinburgh (and hence all the lowlands). Many members of the Scottish Parliament had died in the pillaging of Edinburgh or were subsequently hunted down by Charles' rebels, leaving no legitimate group to claim the rule of Scotland. Henry, anticipating success, asked the architect Inigo Jones to design a new British Parliament building with a circular debating chamber. He then asked his friend, John Pym, to chair the debate and invited many men of influence to air their views.

France won a major battle against the Spanish near Turin and proceeded to lay siege to the city.

In Germany a battle outside Euskirchen ended in a bloody draw.

British colonists in the New World now numbered some 100,000, though the average lifespan of a colonist was still only 35 years. Yet still there were many clamouring to travel to start a new life, even some of the middle classes were now considering the opportunities that North America and the Caribbean could provide. Most colony towns had self-governing councils, with Henry selecting Governors for the Colonies as a whole. Virginia was still the most populous Colony, though New England with the inclusion of New Amsterdam (OTL New York) was fast catching up.

Henry opened Hyde Park, the first of his Royal parks, to the public.

(1633-L October) Charles was captured hiding in a crofter’s hut near Elgin. All his friends had deserted him at the last. He was bound as a common criminal and carted back to London.

There was a riot in Edinburgh as a mob tried to lynch Charles as he was brought through the city. Cromwell had it put down, and was later commended for the restraint he showed; still, 23 people died in the ensuing violence as Charles was placed on a ship bound for London.

The French continued to besiege Turin, though many were now suffering from exposure to the elements and lack of sanitation, due to the sloppiness of their camps. Dysentery was estimated to have killed over 10,000 of them.

The McGregor road from London to Dover had now reached Canterbury; the one to Bristol had reached Newbury. The Great North Road had reached St Albans from London and North Berwick from Edinburgh.

(1633-M November) Charles was now in London, imprisoned in the Tower.

The NBA suspended operations in the Highlands and moved back to their barracks in the Midlothian.

Henry was approached by Gustav Adolphus of Sweden with an offer of betrothal for James to Gustav's daughter, Maria Christina Alexandra, though she was currently only seven. Henry consulted with James and both agreed it was a good match. Maria would then be invited to visit Britain soon to meet her groom.

The French retreated from Turin, disease and desertion had decimated the army.

There were no major battles in Europe at this time as winter had now set in.

(1633-N December) Henry celebrated Christmas with a land once again at peace.

The trial of Charles was set for January. He was to be tried by his peers in the House of Lords.

 

Chapter 3)

 

(1634) The trial of Charles began. Facing his accusers, he was arrogant and unrepentant of his acts of treason. Often refusing to answer and occasionally accusative in return, he claimed Henry had betrayed Protestantism by abandoning his position as its head in England. The trial however, wasn't long. Charles was found guilty and sentenced to be hung, drawn and quartered (the fate of traitors). Charles appealed to his brother thinking, as many did, that Henry would not kill his own blood, or even that Henry would offer him the death of a King. Henry's reply is quite famous, ‘My Britain is a land of law, it would ill behove my subjects to see any man, be he King or commoner, not to be subject to these laws’. The only mercy Henry would allow was that Charles would be buried with his wife.

Much of 1634 was spent rebuilding in Britain, especially in lowland Scotland, as many buildings and housing had been destroyed during the rebellion. The first of the McGregor Highways was completed to Dover from London and was considered a marvel of construction. Bristol was finally linked to London later in the year and the Great North Road was progressing satisfactorily from both ends. Cromwell had also authorised a King’s highway between Edinburgh and Glasgow. Work also started on the Great Canal between the rivers Avon and Kennet.

Money and trade continued to pour into Britain from abroad, one effect being the drawing away of country folk into the now overcrowded and squalid inner cities.

The NBA continued to seek out and reduce any Highland strongholds, now helped by lowland units recruited by Cromwell.

In Ireland, Wentworth continued his ‘thorough’ methodology to make Ireland a modern prosperous state. Many of the Old English Roman Catholic aristocracy were now willingly selling up their land and moving to England to take advantage of the religious tolerance there. The other poor Irish were being slowly but surely removed from their tenancies and shipped to France, many finding employ in the French armies.

Giovanni Branca and some colleagues demonstrated the first steam driven turbine to great interest. Many could see great possibilities for a device that didn't rely on wind, water, man nor beast to turn it.

In Europe the French and Spanish continued to fight a series of large and small battles over much of northern Italy as well as the Pyrenees and the Palatinate. Most of these were inconclusive, though those that ended in victory tended to be to the French. In the Caribbean a Spanish relief force sent to retake Puerto Rico was dumbfounded to find a Danish flag flying over the island and a Danish fleet in the area. The fleet commander retreated, not wishing to cause anything that might draw Denmark into the war.

The Dutch broke through the depleted Spanish lines at their land border and proceeded to occupy the Spanish Netherlands as far south as Antwerp facing little if any resistance.

In Poland resistance to the occupation of Swedish forces was growing. Gustav Adolphus prepared to bring them to heel with the Swedish army.

In North America, British privateers stepped up operations against straggling merchantmen of the other nations, especially those of France. Henry had been informed of the weakness of Nouvelle France and saw an opportunity to expand his realm whilst France was busy elsewhere. British exploration of the great river in the Gulf of Mexico had led it upstream to found several towns on the banks, opening up some of the interior.

In Britain a huge convoy was also being assembled for a long and dangerous voyage to California to set up a colony in the bay of St Francis.

Captain George Martins of the merchant vessel Queen Marie set foot on Japanese soil at the port of Satsuma. Opportunities for trade looked very promising.

Draining of the Cambridge Fens - an experienced embankment engineer, Vermuyden, was financed by Henry to drain Hatfield Chase in the Isle of Axholme. Jointly financed by Dutch and English capitalists, Francis, Earl of Bedford and 13 Adventurers, the project was a controversial undertaking, not only for the engineering techniques used, but also because it employed Dutch, rather than English, workmen. Despite many problems the project was a success and similar techniques were started to increase the amount of arable land available throughout Britain.

(1635) The Hampton Conference endorsed a plan to unite the Kingdoms of England, Wales and Scotland with a joint Parliament. There were no plans for any union flags or any other symbols of the union other than the Royal Standards. Henry agreed to summon the joint Parliament as soon as a suitable building could be ready to house it, recognising that the Palace of Westminster would not be suitable due to its links to England alone. The new Parliament building was still a long way off completion in the way of construction.

Negotiations also began between the four northern protestant states (Britain, Holland, Denmark and Sweden) to stop the piracy of each other's vessels. It had become self-evident that they had more to gain from protecting each other than inflaming tensions between themselves.

A British colony in California was planted in the bay of St Francis (San Francisco). It was the largest undertaking the British colonial fleet had ever undertaken. Even so, with all the resources available, over half the colony had succumbed to starvation and disease within a year. It would take a further ten years and three other major resupply fleets before the colony was considered viably self-sufficient.

Many Highlanders were now fleeing to France (including the MacDonald's and their other kin) via their relatives in Ireland. Some though, such as Clan Campbell, had managed to prove to Cromwell's satisfaction that they were not involved in the rebellion and had property and kin returned to them along with a small donative by way of apology. The Campbell's were now acting as scouts to the NBA, seeking out rebel encampments and ridding themselves of the occasional rival clans (Lamont and Irvine being pre-eminent).

Glasgow and Edinburgh were now linked by a King's Highway. The Great North Road from Edinburgh had now reached Newcastle and Peterborough from London. The Great Canal was now under construction but was suffering from lack of expertise in canal building techniques. The Dutch engineer Vermuyden suggested using puddle clay to line the canal and this proved adequate in sealing the canal bottom. Many lowland Scots petitioned Cromwell for a canal between Edinburgh and Glasgow. This was rejected as simply too expensive for the Crown to bear. Though many private investors looked upon it with interest.

John Stearne, an apprentice of Matthew Hopkins (deceased, killed during the Devereaux uprising) aka the so-called ‘Witch-finder General’ was arrested in Norwich for murder along with several rich landowners who had hired his help to remove ‘undesirables’ from their land by false accusations of witchcraft.

Gustav Adolphus and the Swedish army re-invaded Poland to bring the rebellious land back to heel. This proved far more difficult than Gustav anticipated, someone had been arming and training the Poles.

The war between France and Spain dragged on, despite numerous battles neither side seemed able to gain the upper hand.

(1636) The NBA was finally withdrawn from the Highlands, leaving many areas totally depopulated, although there was some movement north from immigrant groups moving into Britain, escaping from the fighting between France and Spain. Local militias were drawn up to garrison the larger towns and deal with crime.

The Branca group demonstrated a steam powered spinning rig, linking several different machines powered by a Branca turbine, including a wood turning lathe, a spinning machine, and a blacksmiths bellows. There was a great deal of interest from many groups including the Huguenots.

The first newspaper in Britain was printed. It had no title; it was known simply as ‘The News’.

John Sibthorpe demonstrated a coal burning oven.

William Gascoigne demonstrated a micrometer on his telescope allowing extremely accurate measurement and movement.

A British merchantman, fleeing a typhoon, sought shelter in OTL Sydney harbour. The Captain realised this could be a new venture colony financed by the British crown and reported his findings to crown agents in Bombay, who despatched a message to London about this ‘New Land’.

The first Japanese silks and lacquer-work appeared in London.

Plans were being drawn up to seize key locations in Nouvelle France in an attempt to take the colony off French hands.

Denmark/Norway attacked Sweden in an attempt to extend Danish influence further north of Scania. Although initially successful it rapidly became apparent that Swedish resistance was far stronger than Christian IV imagined it would be, and this with much of the Swedish army bogged down in Poland.

France was now totally in control of the Palatinate as an army under General Longueville crushed the remaining Spanish tercios operating in northern Europe.

Spain was currently bogged down in Italy as the French blocked every move to break out to the north. Many of the fleeing Highlander clans sought permission to settle in the Pyrenees in return for service to the French crown. This was granted.

At sea, the Dutch attacked a Spanish fleet setting out for the Netherlands, the Dutch won but the loss of ships on both sides was immense. 30 Spanish and 24 Dutch men-of-war went to the bottom.

Britain, Holland and Denmark agreed not to ‘liberate’ each other's merchantmen and concentrate on the Spanish and French instead. Sweden agreed in principle though not in the case of Denmark with whom they were at war.

 

Chapter 4)

 

(1637) The New British army was re-organised with the phasing out of pikes in favour of bayoneted muskets. This gave it a much faster marching speed and battlefield manoeuvrability. The English Parliament debated standing it down, however the troubles in Europe as well as plans for further colonial acquisitions meant the debate came to nothing. Henry also set up a Board of Ordinance to proof check all weapons supplied to the Army as well as the costs. He soon found out that the Worshipful Company of Workmen Armours of London was grossly overcharging him for each weapon supplied and started to look for alternative makers and suppliers.

The Great North Road was finally completed, it was now possible for a coach to travel from London to Edinburgh in just two days (with frequent horse changes en-route). Other King's Highways were planned and the maintenance of these roads was taken up by Parliament, local roads being a parish responsibility.

The new British Parliament building was taking shape, though as yet there were no plans to dissolve the English Parliament and merge the two nations systems, Scotland still being under the direct control of the Crown via Cromwell.

Work continued on the Royal Canal mostly by trial and error, but it was now nearly two thirds dug.

William Oughtred demonstrated a circular slide rule based on a logarithmic scale to mathematicians in Oxford and Cambridge alongside his works on Clavis Mathematicae which included a description of Hindu-Arabic notation and decimal fractions and a considerable section on algebra. He experimented with many new symbols including 'x' for multiplication and '::' for proportion. Like all Oughtred's works it was very condensed, contained in only 88 pages.

The Danish-Swedish war continued with Danish troops bogged down in southern Sweden and the Swedish army bogged down in Poland, unable to return to Sweden because of Danish men-of-war interdicting all shipping in the Baltic. This was turning into a war neither side needed or wanted. Though Christian IV of Denmark still believed he could win, he now knew that it might not be worth the time or effort involved and was now looking for a way out of his predicament.

France was now pushing hard against Spanish holdings in Northern Italy. The only reason they hadn't pushed into the Papal States was the Pope's threat to ex-communicate any Frenchman who dared to violate his territory. Philip of Spain was now in talks with his cousin, Ferdinand III of the Holy Roman Empire, to come to his aid. Ferdinand instructed Albrecht Von Wallenstein to mobilise an Imperial army, though was reluctant as yet to get involved.

Richelieu learnt from various sources that Britain intended to move against Nouvelle France but he did not have the support or means to prevent this. The King, Louis, was far more interested in getting his hands on Northern Italy than keeping this territory. Richelieu sent a letter to King Henry in Louis' name offering to sell the territories to him.

The Dutch continued to expand in the disputed Spanish Netherlands, although a strongly worded message from Cardinal Richelieu limited this somewhat. The Dutch had no desire to get into a war with France and started talks with Britain, Denmark and Sweden to see if they could arrange some sort of mutual defence league, though without great success so far.

More Irish and rebel Scots settled in France, often displacing natives and causing a lot of local unrest. They were however valued as doughty and fierce warriors by the French military.

(1638) The new Parliament building now was roofed and Henry ordered the dissolution of the English Parliament and summoning of the British Parliament by election. Henry asked John Pym to negotiate with Richelieu on the proposed purchase of Nouvelle France.

Following an attempted treatment of Queen Maria Elisabet with ground mummy to cure her bouts of weakness and making her violently ill, Henry threatened to revoke the charter of the Royal College of Physicians unless they could prove by efficacy the nature of their cures. Long having been a closed shop, the Physicians were forced to open their doors to scrutiny, including the translation into plain English of many of their Latinised texts, including the London Pharmacopeia. In this Henry was aided and abetted by many young physicians and herbalists including Nicholas Culpeper who, despite his belief in astrology, believed that medicine was a public asset not a commercial secret, and that nature's medicine was universal and cheap and only physicians' medicines were expensive. He felt the use of Latin and high prices by doctors, lawyers and priests was a conspiracy to keep power and freedom away from the general public, saying ‘Three kinds of people mainly disease the people - priests, physicians and lawyers - priests disease matters belonging to their souls, physicians’ disease matters belonging to their bodies, and lawyers’ disease matters belonging to their estate’. Many Greek, Roman and Arabic texts were obtained and opened to scrutiny to see if the ancient lore could start providing answers. A young Doctor at this time noted that ether could cause drowsiness and sleep if inhaled through a linen pad, though at the time this was thought of ‘no consequence’.

The western King's Highway to Cardiff via Bristol and Gloucester was completed along with the southern Highway to Portsmouth.

Henry sent gifts to the Shogunate in Japan as Portuguese priests and traders were ousted and Portuguese trading ships were banned from the country. The British and Dutch were allowed to remain to trade so long as they did not bring priests or otherwise proselytise in Japan after a series of revolts by Roman Catholic converts. These gifts included a musket with walnut stock, inlaid with gold and mother of pearl with all metal exposed parts plated in silver, to the Shogun Iemitsu.

Henry decided to use the old Palace of Westminster as a national library ‘To equal or exceed any other library today or in antiquity’. A team was assembled to sort out any tomes acquired and instructions were given to all trading companies to purchase in the name of the crown any rare or precious books that could be found, Christian or not.

Wilhelm Schickard demonstrated his calculating machine to amazed mathematicians in London.

In Japan a peasant uprising (the Shimabara Uprising), in which Christians took a leading role, took place on the Shimabara Peninsula of Kyûshû. It was estimated that of the 37,000 people who took part, with only about 100 escaping alive.

The Danish-Swedish war was now at a total stalemate, both monarchs accepted Henry's offer to mediate and to abide by his decisions.

A small Dutch colony was set up on Van Diemen's Land (OTL Tasmania). The Dutch were aware of Australia but as yet had not fully mapped it or found any useable harbours.

The Dutch also approached Henry in his dealings with Denmark and Sweden to see if there was any possibility of a mutual defence treaty.

The Franco-Spanish war continued to go badly for Spain as French armies laid siege to Turin and defeated a relief force to the city. The only fly in the French ointment was the events unfolding in the Holy Roman Empire. Wallenstein, under the command of the Emperor, had raised an army and was now moving towards the fortress of Breisach on the Rhine. The intentions of Ferdinand III were not known to Richelieu or indeed Philip of Spain.

Irish immigration to France had now topped 200,000 (over the last 13 years); with Scottish highlander immigration at a modest 8,000.

Louis XIII of France had a son, also called Louis.

(1639) Some British army regiments of foot were now being equipped with a lighter musket which did not require the use of a shooting stick.

The British army also adopted from the Swedes the use of the paper cartridge method of reloading their muskets. A musketeer was equipped with a cartridge box that contained pre-made rounds of powder and ball. The musketeer would grab a cartridge from the box, then bite down on the ball and tear the cartridge open. He would pinch off a small amount of powder in the cartridge and pour the remainder into the muzzle of his musket. The remaining powder was placed into the pan. The ball was retrieved from his teeth and placed into the muzzle. Then he rammed the ball down the barrel until it was well seated into the chamber. The musketeer then fired his weapon as before. The Swedish/British combination of lighter, handier muskets, with paper cartridges, and salvo tactics enabled the musketeers to reload at one-minute intervals.

The British army now practiced with a variety of methods of volley fire.

The Royal Canal was finally finished. British shipping could now dock at Avonmouth and unload cargoes for London onto barges towed by horse. This greatly reduced the risk to merchant shipping from piracy as it no longer had to traverse the English Channel, which, despite the efforts of the British Navy, was still troubled by such incidents.

Henry resolved the Danish-Swedish war in a way satisfactory to both parties. The Danes had taken severe casualties in southern Sweden and the Swedes were trapped in Poland by Danish warships. The peace Henry proposed was a return to a status quo ante bellum, with Sweden guaranteeing the integrity of the Danish/Norwegian holdings in return for Denmark forgoing the Sound toll to Swedish shipping. Henry also requested that all four leaders of the Protestant North gather in Copenhagen to discuss mutual concerns regarding France, Spain and the Holy Roman Empire

. Henry, after representations by Gustav of Sweden about New World colonies, was blunt in that he intended to see North America as a British fief. He did however offer to Gustav the location of OTL Sydney Australia. This was accepted and Gustav, his Kingdom now at peace, arranged for a colonial fleet to set forth for ‘New Sweden’.

British negotiations with France for the sale of Nouvelle France were successful. For the paltry sum of £300,000 Britain now controlled the eastern seaboard of northern America with the sole exception of Spanish held Florida. The war between England and France was ended at the same time, though not the constant privateering of British and other vessels against French merchantmen.

Representatives from some of the larger settlements in North America approached the regional governors to request the redrawing of colony boundaries so that proper representation of local governance could be achieved.

The Japanese Shogun sent gifts to Henry in thanks and hopes of a more tranquil relationship between their nations. One of these gifts was a samurai sword which impressed Henry immensely as its difference to western swords was plainly obvious, yet it was of no lower quality. Henry contacted the traders involved and asked that they attempt to purchase more, if possible, for use by his cavalry.

In Sheffield a local metalsmith attached a series of bellows connected to ‘Branca’ turbines onto a smelter. The iron produced as a result of the higher temperatures involved was of a far higher quality than had previously been produced.

The Dutch continued to expand into the Spanish Netherlands, settling on a border of the Maas and Scheldt rivers. The French under Richelieu, acting for Louis, informed them, ‘this far and no further!’.

Denmark, freed from its involvement with Sweden, expanded its holdings in the Caribbean and also founded some outposts on the Gold Coast, mostly to acquire slaves for sugar plantations.

A large colonial fleet from Sweden set out for New Sweden. The British Navy escorted them through the English Channel and south past Portugal.

The Franco-Spanish war bogged down again, with many French regiments being diverted north to cover the Holy Roman Empire army massing on the Rhine. The Spanish managed a minor breakthrough in Northern Italy to relieve the siege of Turin, though not enough to drive the French away from the area.

(1640) In this year Henry replaced Thomas Wentworth as Lord-Lieutenant of Ireland at his own request. Wentworth wished to retire to his English estates and in honour of the work he'd done, Henry bestowed upon him the title of Earl of Strafford. Oliver Cromwell was asked to take his place, with the same brief, to keep Ireland prosperous and to remove any and all obstacles to the common peace. James Graham, Marquis of Montrose, was given the title Lord-Lieutenant of Scotland and took up residence as Henry's governor in Edinburgh.

Henry's son, James, married Maria Christina Alexandra Adolphus of Sweden. This made James technically also first in line to be King of Sweden, though both Henry and Gustav had made arrangement that should Gustav not produce a male heir the Swedish crown should go to James' brother, Robert, who was, through his mother (as was James) , fluent in Swedish.

The Copenhagen conference went ahead as scheduled and despite some fears that Christian of Denmark and Gustav of Sweden would come to blows it turned out all four monarchs got on surprisingly well. Various trade agreements were made and markets opened. Both Henry and Frederick Henry, Prince of Orange, agreed to Sweden's request to assist in the colonisation of New Sweden (by supplies, not colonists) and Denmark's request for similar aid on the Gold Coast. In return Dutch and British shipping were given free access to the Baltic.

The main part of the Copenhagen conference was the Treaty of Copenhagen which bound each realm to come to the aid of each other on request should they be attacked, though this was mostly with the intention of keeping France in check. At the end of the conference Henry's son, Robert, travelled with Gustav Adolphus back to Sweden.

Traders from Japan brought 10,000 katana swords from the Shogunate to equip the British army cavalry; these were highly prized and much sought after by infantry officers who had to purchase their own. Trade with Japan increased steadily as the British traded basic commodities such as iron ore, wood and food for finished goods.

King's Highways now linked most major towns of England and Wales with Scotland fast catching up.

The British Parliament discussed the setting up of a colony on the Panama Isthmus, with a view to constructing a fortified port at either side linked by a King's Highway.

Henry also authorised a new water supply for the people of London at this time, using hollowed out elm trunks as piping. Elm being thought to kill pathogens in the water.

The merchants of Edinburgh and Glasgow raised money to employ the engineer Vermuyden to construct a canal between their cities after James Graham stated that the crown would cover half the costs.

Jeremiah Horrocks watched the heavens with a telescope and described the first transit of Venus.

The Tradescants – father and son, both named John, and both gardeners to Henry – introduced new plants such as the French willow, acacia and lilac to British gardens.

Cromwell ordered the first King's Highway in Ireland, to connect Dublin to Cork.

In this year for the first time Protestants outnumbered Roman Catholics in Ireland, though the population had dropped by one third in the last 15 years.

In British North America colonial boundaries were set for Virginia, New England, Mariasland (OTL Carolina), Plymouth colony, New Amsterdam, Newfoundland and Nova Scotia and they were allowed to elect their own assemblies with the governor set as the representative of the Crown. All other settlements were still under the direct rule of the companies that founded them.

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